JavaScript Pragmatic Rules

30 battle-tested principles for production JavaScript.

Relationship with Web Components

This skill provides best practices for all JavaScript code, including web components. When building interactive UI components with the Custom Elements API, combine this skill with web-components-architecture:

• This skill (javascript-pragmatic-rules): HOW to write JavaScript correctly

  • Async patterns (Rules 1-4)
  • Error handling (Rules 7-10)
  • Performance optimization (Rules 16-22)
  • Testing strategies (Rules 12-15)

• web-components-architecture skill: WHAT pattern to use for components

  • Component lifecycle (connectedCallback, disconnectedCallback)
  • Shadow DOM and encapsulation
  • Attribute-driven state
  • HandleEvent pattern

Example: A custom <data-table> component should:

• Use web-components-architecture for structure (extends HTMLElement, uses Shadow DOM)
• Use javascript-pragmatic-rules Rule 4 for cleanup (disconnectedCallback removes listeners)
• Use javascript-pragmatic-rules Rule 17 for memory leak prevention
• Use javascript-pragmatic-rules Rule 2 for timeout on async data fetching

See web-components-architecture skill for component-specific patterns.

Related Skills

• js-micro-utilities: Zero-dependency utility functions (debounce, throttle, deep clone, pick/omit). Use for production code when you need tested utilities.
• web-components-architecture: Component structure and lifecycle patterns

---

Async Operations & Promises

Rule 1: Handle Promise Rejections

Unhandled rejections corrupt state and make debugging impossible.

// ✅ Explicit error handling with context
async function fetchUserData(userId) {
  try {
    const response = await fetch(`/api/users/${userId}`);
    if (!response.ok) throw new Error(`HTTP ${response.status}: ${response.statusText}`);
    return { success: true, data: await response.json() };
  } catch (error) {
    throw new Error(`User fetch failed for ${userId}`, { cause: error });
  }
}

// Global safety net
window.addEventListener('unhandledrejection', (e) => {
  console.error('Unhandled promise rejection:', e.reason);
  if (window.errorTracker) {
    window.errorTracker.captureException(e.reason);
  }
  e.preventDefault();
});

// Result type pattern
async function safeUserFetch(userId) {
  try {
    const response = await fetch(`/api/users/${userId}`);
    if (!response.ok) return { ok: false, error: `HTTP ${response.status}` };
    return { ok: true, value: await response.json() };
  } catch (error) {
    return { ok: false, error: error.message };
  }
}

Rule 2: Time-Bound Async Operations

Network requests can hang indefinitely. Timeouts prevent resource exhaustion.

// ✅ AbortController for cancellable fetch
async function fetchWithTimeout(url, timeoutMs = 5_000) {
  const controller = new AbortController();
  const timeoutId = setTimeout(() => controller.abort(), timeoutMs);

  try {
    const response = await fetch(url, { signal: controller.signal });
    clearTimeout(timeoutId);
    if (!response.ok) throw new Error(`HTTP ${response.status}`);
    return await response.json();
  } catch (error) {
    clearTimeout(timeoutId);
    if (error.name === 'AbortError') {
      throw new Error(`Request to ${url} timed out after ${timeoutMs}ms`);
    }
    throw error;
  }
}

// Advanced: timeout with exponential backoff retry
async function fetchWithRetry(url, options = {}) {
  const timeout = options.timeout ?? 5_000;
  const maxRetries = options.maxRetries ?? 3;
  const retryDelay = options.retryDelay ?? 1_000;
  const retryOn = options.retryOn ?? [408, 429, 500, 502, 503, 504];

  let lastError;
  for (let attempt = 0; attempt <= maxRetries; attempt++) {
    const controller = new AbortController();
    const timeoutId = setTimeout(() => controller.abort(), timeout);

    try {
      const response = await fetch(url, { signal: controller.signal });
      clearTimeout(timeoutId);
      if (response.ok) return await response.json();

      if (!retryOn.includes(response.status)) {
        throw new Error(`HTTP ${response.status}: ${response.statusText}`);
      }
      lastError = new Error(`HTTP ${response.status}`);
    } catch (error) {
      clearTimeout(timeoutId);
      lastError = error.name === 'AbortError' ? new Error(`Timeout after ${timeout}ms`) : error;
    }

    if (attempt < maxRetries) {
      await new Promise(resolve => setTimeout(resolve, retryDelay * (2 ** attempt)));
    }
  }
  throw new Error(`Failed after ${maxRetries} retries`, { cause: lastError });
}

Rule 3: Limit Concurrent Operations

Unbounded concurrency exhausts resources. Controlled concurrency prevents cascading failures.

// ✅ Batch processing with concurrency limit
async function processInBatches(items, batchSize, processor) {
  const results = [];
  for (let i = 0; i < items.length; i += batchSize) {
    const batch = items.slice(i, i + batchSize);
    const batchResults = await Promise.all(batch.map(processor));
    results.push(...batchResults);
  }
  return results;
}

// ✅ Promise pool with semaphore
class PromisePool {
  #concurrency;
  #running = 0;
  #queue = [];

  constructor(concurrency) {
    this.#concurrency = concurrency;
  }

  async run(fn) {
    while (this.#running >= this.#concurrency) {
      await new Promise(resolve => this.#queue.push(resolve));
    }
    this.#running++;
    try {
      return await fn();
    } finally {
      this.#running--;
      const resolve = this.#queue.shift();
      if (resolve) resolve();
    }
  }
}

// Advanced: rate limiter with token bucket
class RateLimiter {
  #tokensPerSecond;
  #tokens;
  #maxTokens;
  #lastRefill;

  constructor(tokensPerSecond, burstSize = tokensPerSecond) {
    this.#tokensPerSecond = tokensPerSecond;
    this.#tokens = burstSize;
    this.#maxTokens = burstSize;
    this.#lastRefill = Date.now();
  }

  #refill() {
    const now = Date.now();
    const elapsed = (now - this.#lastRefill) / 1_000;
    this.#tokens = Math.min(this.#maxTokens, this.#tokens + elapsed * this.#tokensPerSecond);
    this.#lastRefill = now;
  }

  async acquire() {
    this.#refill();
    if (this.#tokens >= 1) {
      this.#tokens -= 1;
      return;
    }
    const timeToWait = ((1 - this.#tokens) / this.#tokensPerSecond) * 1_000;
    await new Promise(resolve => setTimeout(resolve, timeToWait));
    this.#refill();
    this.#tokens -= 1;
  }

  async run(fn) {
    await this.acquire();
    return fn();
  }
}

Rule 4: Clean Up Resources

Orphaned timers/listeners cause memory leaks. Proper cleanup is essential.

// ✅ Web Component cleanup
class TimerComponent extends HTMLElement {
  #intervalId = null;

  connectedCallback() {
    this.#intervalId = setInterval(() => {
      this.textContent = Date.now();
    }, 1_000);
  }

  disconnectedCallback() {
    if (this.#intervalId) {
      clearInterval(this.#intervalId);
      this.#intervalId = null;
    }
  }
}

// ✅ Cleanup registry pattern
class CleanupRegistry {
  #cleanups = [];

  registerTimeout(callback, delay) {
    const id = setTimeout(callback, delay);
    this.#cleanups.push(() => clearTimeout(id));
    return id;
  }

  registerInterval(callback, delay) {
    const id = setInterval(callback, delay);
    this.#cleanups.push(() => clearInterval(id));
    return id;
  }

  registerListener(element, event, handler, options) {
    element.addEventListener(event, handler, options);
    this.#cleanups.push(() => element.removeEventListener(event, handler, options));
  }

  registerCleanup(fn) {
    this.#cleanups.push(fn);
  }

  cleanup() {
    for (const fn of this.#cleanups) fn();
    this.#cleanups = [];
  }
}

// Usage in Web Component
class MyComponent extends HTMLElement {
  #cleanup = new CleanupRegistry();

  connectedCallback() {
    this.#cleanup.registerTimeout(() => console.log('Delayed'), 1_000);
    this.#cleanup.registerListener(window, 'resize', this.#handleResize.bind(this));
  }

  disconnectedCallback() {
    this.#cleanup.cleanup();
  }

  #handleResize() {
    // Handle resize
  }
}

// Advanced: cancellable polling
class Poller {
  #fn;
  #interval;
  #timeoutId = null;
  #isActive = false;

  constructor(fn, interval) {
    this.#fn = fn;
    this.#interval = interval;
  }

  async #poll() {
    if (!this.#isActive) return;
    try {
      await this.#fn();
    } catch (error) {
      console.error(error);
    }
    if (this.#isActive) {
      this.#timeoutId = setTimeout(() => queueMicrotask(() => this.#poll()), this.#interval);
    }
  }

  start() {
    if (this.#isActive) return;
    this.#isActive = true;
    queueMicrotask(() => this.#poll());
  }

  stop() {
    this.#isActive = false;
    if (this.#timeoutId) {
      clearTimeout(this.#timeoutId);
      this.#timeoutId = null;
    }
  }
}

Object Design & Immutability

Rule 4a: Initialize All Properties

V8 creates hidden classes for objects. Adding properties dynamically causes shape transitions, deoptimizing property access.

// ✅ Initialize all properties upfront
class User {
  #name;
  #email;
  #age;

  constructor(name, email = null, age = null) {
    this.#name = name;
    this.#email = email;
    this.#age = age;
  }

  setEmail(email) {
    this.#email = email; // No shape transition, just value change
  }

  setAge(age) {
    this.#age = age;
  }

  getName() {
    return this.#name;
  }

  getEmail() {
    return this.#email;
  }

  getAge() {
    return this.#age;
  }
}

// Factory ensures consistent shapes
function createPoint(x = 0, y = 0, z = 0) {
  return { x, y, z };
}

// All points have identical shape
const points = Array.from({ length: 1_000 }, (_, i) => createPoint(i, i * 2, i * 3));

// Optimized loop - V8 knows exact shape
let sum = 0;
for (const point of points) {
  sum += point.x + point.y + point.z; // Fast property access
}

Rule 5: Prefer Immutability

Immutability prevents bugs from shared mutable state, enables time-travel debugging, and makes code predictable.

// ✅ Create new objects
function addItemToCart(cart, item) {
  return {
    ...cart,
    items: [...cart.items, item],
    total: cart.total + item.price
  };
}

// ✅ Immutable deep update
function updateUserAddress(user, newAddress) {
  return {
    ...user,
    profile: {
      ...user.profile,
      address: {
        ...user.profile.address,
        ...newAddress
      }
    }
  };
}

// ES2023 immutable array operations
const numbers = [5, 2, 8, 1, 9];
const sorted = numbers.toSorted((a, b) => a - b); // numbers unchanged
const reversed = numbers.toReversed(); // numbers unchanged
const spliced = numbers.toSpliced(1, 2, 99, 100); // numbers unchanged
const updated = numbers.with(2, 999); // numbers unchanged

// Deep cloning with structuredClone
const copy = structuredClone(original); // Handles dates, maps, sets, etc.

Rule 6: Design for Cancellation

Users navigate away, components unmount. Cancellation prevents wasted work and race conditions.

// ✅ Cancellable fetch in Web Component
class SearchComponent extends HTMLElement {
  #query = '';
  #results = [];
  #abortController = null;

  async #search() {
    if (this.#abortController) this.#abortController.abort();

    this.#abortController = new AbortController();
    const signal = this.#abortController.signal;

    try {
      const response = await fetch(`/api/search?q=${this.#query}`, { signal });
      if (!response.ok) throw new Error(`HTTP ${response.status}`);
      this.#results = await response.json();
      this.render();
    } catch (error) {
      if (error.name === 'AbortError') {
        console.log('Search cancelled');
        return;
      }
      console.error('Search failed:', error);
    }
  }

  disconnectedCallback() {
    if (this.#abortController) this.#abortController.abort();
  }

  render() {
    // Render results
  }
}

// Generic cancellable async function
function makeCancellable(asyncFn) {
  let isCancelled = false;
  const controller = new AbortController();

  const promise = (async () => {
    try {
      const result = await asyncFn(controller.signal);
      if (isCancelled) throw new Error('Cancelled');
      return result;
    } catch (error) {
      if (isCancelled || error.name === 'AbortError') throw new Error('Cancelled');
      throw error;
    }
  })();

  return {
    promise,
    cancel: () => {
      isCancelled = true;
      controller.abort();
    }
  };
}

Rule 7: Graceful Error Boundaries

Unhandled errors crash entire component trees. Error boundaries contain failures and preserve working UI.

// ✅ Web Component error boundary
class ErrorBoundary extends HTMLElement {
  #hasError = false;
  #error = null;

  connectedCallback() {
    window.addEventListener('error', this.#handleError.bind(this));
    window.addEventListener('unhandledrejection', this.#handleRejection.bind(this));
  }

  disconnectedCallback() {
    window.removeEventListener('error', this.#handleError.bind(this));
    window.removeEventListener('unhandledrejection', this.#handleRejection.bind(this));
  }

  #handleError(event) {
    this.#hasError = true;
    this.#error = event.error;
    this.#render();
    if (window.errorTracker) {
      window.errorTracker.captureException(event.error);
    }
    event.preventDefault();
  }

  #handleRejection(event) {
    this.#hasError = true;
    this.#error = event.reason;
    this.#render();
    event.preventDefault();
  }

  #resetError() {
    this.#hasError = false;
    this.#error = null;
    this.#render();
  }

  #render() {
    if (this.#hasError) {
      this.innerHTML = `
        <div role="alert">
          <h2>Something went wrong</h2>
          <details>
            <summary>Error Details</summary>
            <pre>${this.#error?.toString() ?? 'Unknown error'}</pre>
          </details>
          <button>Try again</button>
        </div>
      `;
      const button = this.querySelector('button');
      if (button) button.addEventListener('click', () => this.#resetError());
    }
  }
}

customElements.define('error-boundary', ErrorBoundary);

Error Handling & Resilience

Rule 8: Zero Uncaught Exceptions

Uncaught exceptions crash applications and corrupt state. Global handlers ensure all errors are logged.

// ✅ Comprehensive error handling setup
class GlobalErrorHandler {
  #logger;

  constructor(options = {}) {
    this.#logger = options.logger ?? console;
    this.#setupHandlers();
  }

  #setupHandlers() {
    window.addEventListener('error', (event) => {
      this.#handleError({
        type: 'error',
        message: event.message,
        filename: event.filename,
        lineno: event.lineno,
        error: event.error,
        timestamp: Date.now()
      });
      event.preventDefault();
    });

    window.addEventListener('unhandledrejection', (event) => {
      this.#handleError({
        type: 'unhandledRejection',
        reason: event.reason,
        timestamp: Date.now()
      });
      event.preventDefault();
    });
  }

  #handleError(errorInfo) {
    this.#logger.error('Global error:', errorInfo);

    // Send to error tracking service
    if (window.errorTracker) {
      window.errorTracker.captureException(errorInfo.error ?? errorInfo.reason, {
        extra: errorInfo
      });
    }

    // Use keepalive to ensure delivery
    if (navigator.sendBeacon) {
      navigator.sendBeacon('/api/errors', JSON.stringify(errorInfo));
    }
  }
}

Rule 9: Small Module Interfaces

Large interfaces couple consumers to implementation details. Small, focused modules are easier to test and maintain.

// ✅ Focused modules (1-3 exports)

// user_repository.js - Data access (1 export)
export class UserRepository {
  async findById(id) { /* ... */ }
  async save(user) { /* ... */ }
  async delete(id) { /* ... */ }
}

// user_validator.js - Validation (1 export)
export function validateUser(user) {
  const errors = [];
  if (!user.email || !isValidEmail(user.email)) errors.push('Invalid email');
  if (!user.password || user.password.length < 8) errors.push('Password must be 8+ characters');
  return { isValid: errors.length === 0, errors };
}

// Facade pattern for clean interface
export class OrderService {
  #payment;
  #inventory;
  #shipping;

  constructor() {
    this.#payment = new PaymentProcessor();
    this.#inventory = new InventoryManager();
    this.#shipping = new ShippingCalculator();
  }

  async createOrder(orderData) {
    const inventoryCheck = await this.#inventory.reserve(orderData.items);
    if (!inventoryCheck.success) throw new Error('Items not available');

    const shippingCost = await this.#shipping.calculate(orderData.address);
    const payment = await this.#payment.charge(orderData.paymentMethod, orderData.total + shippingCost);

    return { orderId: payment.orderId, total: orderData.total + shippingCost };
  }
}

Rule 10: Map Errors to User Messages

Technical error messages confuse users. User-friendly messages improve UX.

// ✅ Error mapping
class ErrorMapper {
  #errorMap = new Map([
    ['NETWORK_ERROR', { title: 'Connection Problem', message: 'Check your internet.', action: 'Retry' }],
    ['TIMEOUT', { title: 'Request Timeout', message: 'Request took too long. Try again.', action: 'Retry' }],
    ['UNAUTHORIZED', { title: 'Sign In Required', message: 'Session expired. Sign in again.', action: 'Sign In' }],
    ['FORBIDDEN', { title: 'Access Denied', message: 'No permission for this action.', action: null }],
    ['VALIDATION_ERROR', { title: 'Invalid Input', message: 'Check your input and try again.', action: 'Edit' }],
    ['SERVER_ERROR', { title: 'Server Error', message: 'Something went wrong. Team notified.', action: 'Contact Support' }],
    ['NOT_FOUND', { title: 'Not Found', message: 'Resource not found.', action: 'Go Back' }]
  ]);

  mapError(errorCode, context = {}) {
    const mapped = this.#errorMap.get(errorCode);
    if (!mapped) return { title: 'Unexpected Error', message: 'An error occurred. Try again.', action: 'Retry' };

    let message = mapped.message;
    for (const key of Object.keys(context)) {
      message = message.replaceAll(`{${key}}`, context[key]);
    }
    return { ...mapped, message };
  }

  fromHTTPStatus(status) {
    const statusMap = {
      400: 'VALIDATION_ERROR', 401: 'UNAUTHORIZED', 403: 'FORBIDDEN', 404: 'NOT_FOUND',
      408: 'TIMEOUT', 429: 'RATE_LIMITED', 500: 'SERVER_ERROR', 502: 'SERVER_ERROR',
      503: 'SERVER_ERROR', 504: 'TIMEOUT'
    };
    return this.mapError(statusMap[status] ?? 'SERVER_ERROR');
  }
}

Logging & Observability

Rule 11: Structured Logging

Plain text logs are hard to query. Structured logs enable powerful filtering and debugging.

// ✅ Structured logging with context
class Logger {
  #serviceName;
  #environment;
  #minimumLevel;
  #levels = { debug: 0, info: 1, warn: 2, error: 3 };

  constructor(options = {}) {
    this.#serviceName = options.serviceName ?? 'app';
    this.#environment = options.environment ?? 'development';
    this.#minimumLevel = options.minimumLevel ?? 'info';
  }

  log(level, message, context = {}) {
    if (this.#levels[level] < this.#levels[this.#minimumLevel]) return;

    const logEntry = {
      timestamp: new Date().toISOString(),
      level,
      service: this.#serviceName,
      environment: this.#environment,
      message,
      ...context
    };

    if (this.#environment === 'production' && navigator.sendBeacon) {
      navigator.sendBeacon('/api/logs', JSON.stringify(logEntry));
    }

    console[level](JSON.stringify(logEntry));
  }

  info(message, context) { this.log('info', message, context); }
  warn(message, context) { this.log('warn', message, context); }
  error(message, error, context = {}) {
    this.log('error', message, {
      ...context,
      error: { message: error.message, stack: error.stack, name: error.name }
    });
  }
}

// Performance logging
class PerformanceLogger extends Logger {
  startTimer(operation) {
    const timerId = `${operation}_${Date.now()}`;
    performance.mark(`${timerId}_start`);
    return timerId;
  }

  endTimer(timerId, operation, context = {}) {
    performance.mark(`${timerId}_end`);
    try {
      performance.measure(timerId, `${timerId}_start`, `${timerId}_end`);
      const measure = performance.getEntriesByName(timerId)[0];
      if (measure) {
        this.info('Operation completed', { operation, duration: measure.duration, ...context });
      }
      performance.clearMarks(`${timerId}_start`);
      performance.clearMarks(`${timerId}_end`);
      performance.clearMeasures(timerId);
      return measure ? measure.duration : null;
    } catch (error) {
      this.error('Failed to measure performance', error);
      return null;
    }
  }
}

Rule 12: Table-Driven Tests

Repetitive test code is error-prone. Table-driven tests make it easy to add cases and see patterns.

// ✅ Table-driven tests
describe('calculateDiscount', () => {
  const testCases = [
    [100, 1, 0, 'No discount for single item'],
    [100, 5, 10, '10% discount for 5 items'],
    [100, 10, 20, '20% discount for 10 items'],
    [100, 20, 30, '30% discount for 20+ items'],
    [0, 10, 0, 'Zero price returns zero'],
    [100, 0, 0, 'Zero quantity returns zero']
  ];

  for (const [price, quantity, expected, description] of testCases) {
    test(`${description}: calculateDiscount(${price}, ${quantity}) = ${expected}`, () => {
      expect(calculateDiscount(price, quantity)).toBe(expected);
    });
  }
});

// Complex test cases
describe('validateEmail', () => {
  const testCases = [
    ['user@example.com', true],
    ['user.name@example.com', true],
    ['user+tag@example.co.uk', true],
    ['', false],
    ['invalid', false],
    ['@example.com', false],
    ['user@', false]
  ];

  for (const [email, expected] of testCases) {
    test(`validateEmail("${email}") should return ${expected}`, () => {
      expect(validateEmail(email)).toBe(expected);
    });
  }
});

Testing Strategy

Rule 13: Realistic API Testing

Unit tests with mocks don't catch integration issues. Realistic API tests provide confidence.

// ✅ Browser-based fetch mocking
const originalFetch = window.fetch;

function mockFetch(handlers) {
  window.fetch = async (url, options = {}) => {
    for (const handler of handlers) {
      const match = url.match(handler.pattern);
      if (match && options.method === handler.method) {
        const response = await handler.handler(match, options.body);
        return new Response(JSON.stringify(response.body), {
          status: response.status,
          headers: { 'Content-Type': 'application/json' }
        });
      }
    }
    return originalFetch(url, options);
  };
}

function restoreFetch() {
  window.fetch = originalFetch;
}

// Usage
const handlers = [
  {
    method: 'GET',
    pattern: /\/api\/users\/(\d+)/,
    handler: async (match) => {
      const id = match[1];
      if (id === '999') return { status: 404, body: { error: 'User not found' } };
      return { status: 200, body: { id, name: 'Test User', email: 'test@example.com' } };
    }
  }
];

mockFetch(handlers);
// Run tests
restoreFetch();

Rule 14: Property-Based Tests

Example-based tests only cover known cases. Property-based tests generate random inputs, finding edge cases.

// ✅ Property-based testing
describe('Array sorting', () => {
  // Property: sorted array should be in ascending order
  test('sort produces ascending order', () => {
    for (let i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
      const arr = generateRandomArray();
      const sorted = arr.toSorted((a, b) => a - b);
      for (let j = 1; j < sorted.length; j++) {
        expect(sorted[j]).toBeGreaterThanOrEqual(sorted[j - 1]);
      }
    }
  });

  // Property: sorted array contains same elements
  test('sort preserves all elements', () => {
    for (let i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
      const arr = generateRandomArray();
      const sorted = arr.toSorted((a, b) => a - b);
      expect(sorted).toHaveLength(arr.length);
      for (const item of sorted) expect(arr.includes(item)).toBe(true);
    }
  });

  // Property: sorting twice gives same result (idempotence)
  test('sort is idempotent', () => {
    for (let i = 0; i < 100; i++) {
      const arr = generateRandomArray();
      const sorted1 = arr.toSorted((a, b) => a - b);
      const sorted2 = sorted1.toSorted((a, b) => a - b);
      expect(sorted1).toEqual(sorted2);
    }
  });
});

function generateRandomArray() {
  const length = Math.floor(Math.random() * 100);
  return Array.from({ length }, () => Math.floor(Math.random() * 1_000) - 500);
}

Rule 15: Debounce/Throttle UI Events

High-frequency events can fire hundreds of times per second, causing performance issues.

Production tip: For tested implementations with edge case handling, use just-debounce-it and just-throttle from the js-micro-utilities skill. The implementations below show how these patterns work.

// ✅ Debounce implementation
function debounce(fn, delay) {
  let timeoutId = null;
  return (...args) => {
    if (timeoutId) clearTimeout(timeoutId);
    timeoutId = setTimeout(() => {
      fn(...args);
      timeoutId = null;
    }, delay);
  };
}

// Usage
const searchInput = document.getElementById('search');
const debouncedSearch = debounce(async (query) => {
  const response = await fetch(`/api/search?q=${query}`);
  const results = await response.json();
  displayResults(results);
}, 300);

searchInput.addEventListener('input', (e) => debouncedSearch(e.target.value));

// ✅ Throttle implementation
function throttle(fn, limit) {
  let inThrottle = false;
  return (...args) => {
    if (!inThrottle) {
      fn(...args);
      inThrottle = true;
      setTimeout(() => inThrottle = false, limit);
    }
  };
}

// Usage
const throttledScroll = throttle(() => {
  const scrollY = window.scrollY;
  document.getElementById('back-to-top').style.display = scrollY > 500 ? 'block' : 'none';
}, 100);

window.addEventListener('scroll', throttledScroll);

Performance Optimization

Rule 16: Profile Before Optimizing

Premature optimization wastes time. Profiling identifies actual bottlenecks.

// ✅ Performance API
const start = performance.now();
expensiveOperation();
console.log(`Took ${performance.now() - start}ms`);

// Comprehensive performance monitoring
class PerformanceMonitor {
  #name;

  constructor(name) {
    this.#name = name;
  }

  start(label = 'default') {
    performance.mark(`${this.#name}_${label}_start`);
  }

  end(label = 'default') {
    const startMark = `${this.#name}_${label}_start`;
    const endMark = `${this.#name}_${label}_end`;
    performance.mark(endMark);
    performance.measure(`${this.#name}_${label}`, startMark, endMark);
    const measure = performance.getEntriesByName(`${this.#name}_${label}`)[0];
    const duration = measure.duration;
    if (duration > 100) console.warn(`Slow: ${this.#name}_${label} took ${duration.toFixed(2)}ms`);
    performance.clearMarks(startMark);
    performance.clearMarks(endMark);
    performance.clearMeasures(`${this.#name}_${label}`);
    return duration;
  }
}

Rule 17: Avoid Memory Leaks

Memory leaks degrade performance over time. Proper cleanup is essential.

// ✅ Web Component comprehensive cleanup
class DataTable extends HTMLElement {
  #cleanup = [];
  #intervalId = null;
  #observer = null;

  connectedCallback() {
    const handleResize = () => this.#updateLayout();
    window.addEventListener('resize', handleResize);
    this.#cleanup.push(() => window.removeEventListener('resize', handleResize));

    this.#observer = new IntersectionObserver((entries) => this.#handleIntersection(entries));
    this.#observer.observe(this);
    this.#cleanup.push(() => this.#observer.disconnect());

    this.#intervalId = setInterval(() => this.#fetchUpdates(), 5_000);
    this.#cleanup.push(() => clearInterval(this.#intervalId));
  }

  disconnectedCallback() {
    for (const fn of this.#cleanup) fn();
    this.#cleanup = [];
  }

  #updateLayout() {}
  #handleIntersection(entries) {}
  #fetchUpdates() {}
}

Rule 18: Use Web Workers for CPU Work

Heavy computation blocks the main thread. Web Workers enable true parallelism.

// ✅ Offload computation to worker

// worker.js
self.onmessage = (event) => {
  const { type, data } = event.data;
  if (type === 'PROCESS_DATA') {
    const result = processLargeDataset(data);
    self.postMessage({ type: 'RESULT', result });
  }
};

function processLargeDataset(data) {
  return data.map(item => {
    let result = item;
    for (let i = 0; i < 1_000; i++) result = transform(result);
    return result;
  });
}

function transform(value) {
  return value * 2 + 1;
}

// main.js
class WorkerPool {
  #workers = [];
  #queue = [];
  #activeJobs = new Map();

  constructor(workerPath, poolSize = navigator.hardwareConcurrency ?? 4) {
    for (let i = 0; i < poolSize; i++) {
      const worker = new Worker(workerPath);
      worker.onmessage = (event) => this.#handleMessage(worker, event);
      worker.onerror = (error) => this.#handleError(worker, error);
      this.#workers.push({ worker, isBusy: false });
    }
  }

  async execute(type, data) {
    return new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
      const job = { type, data, resolve, reject };
      this.#queue.push(job);
      this.#processQueue();
    });
  }

  #processQueue() {
    if (this.#queue.length === 0) return;
    const availableWorker = this.#workers.find(w => !w.isBusy);
    if (!availableWorker) return;

    const job = this.#queue.shift();
    availableWorker.isBusy = true;
    this.#activeJobs.set(availableWorker.worker, job);
    availableWorker.worker.postMessage({ type: job.type, data: job.data });
  }

  #handleMessage(worker, event) {
    const job = this.#activeJobs.get(worker);
    if (!job) return;

    const workerInfo = this.#workers.find(w => w.worker === worker);
    if (workerInfo) workerInfo.isBusy = false;

    this.#activeJobs.delete(worker);
    job.resolve(event.data);
    this.#processQueue();
  }

  #handleError(worker, error) {
    const job = this.#activeJobs.get(worker);
    if (job) {
      job.reject(error);
      this.#activeJobs.delete(worker);
    }
    const workerInfo = this.#workers.find(w => w.worker === worker);
    if (workerInfo) workerInfo.isBusy = false;
    this.#processQueue();
  }
}

Rule 19: Avoid Deoptimization Triggers

V8 optimizes hot functions with TurboFan JIT. Certain patterns trigger deoptimization.

// ❌ Triggers deoptimization
delete obj.property;
function bad() { console.log(arguments); }
eval(code);
try { return x * 2; } catch (error) { return 0; }

// ✅ Optimization-friendly
obj.property = undefined; // Set to undefined instead of delete
const good = (...args) => args.reduce((a, b) => a + b, 0); // Rest params instead of arguments
new Function(code)(); // Function constructor instead of eval

// Move try-catch out of hot path
function goodTryCatch(x) {
  return calculate(x); // Hot path is optimizable
}

function calculate(x) {
  return x * 2; // Can be inlined and optimized
}

// Wrap in try-catch at call site only if needed
try {
  const result = goodTryCatch(value);
} catch (error) {
  // Handle error
}

// Keep call sites monomorphic (single type)
function numberToString(num) {
  return String(num); // Always called with numbers
}

function processNumbers(numbers) {
  return numbers.map(n => numberToString(n)); // Monomorphic
}

Rule 20: Prefer requestAnimationFrame

setTimeout/setInterval aren't synchronized with display refresh, causing jank. requestAnimationFrame ensures smooth 60fps animations.

// ✅ Smooth animation
class Animator {
  #rafId = null;
  #isRunning = false;

  animate(callback) {
    if (this.#isRunning) return;
    this.#isRunning = true;
    let lastTime = performance.now();

    const loop = (currentTime) => {
      if (!this.#isRunning) return;
      const deltaTime = currentTime - lastTime;
      lastTime = currentTime;
      callback(deltaTime, currentTime);
      this.#rafId = requestAnimationFrame(loop);
    };

    this.#rafId = requestAnimationFrame(loop);
  }

  stop() {
    this.#isRunning = false;
    if (this.#rafId) {
      cancelAnimationFrame(this.#rafId);
      this.#rafId = null;
    }
  }
}

// Usage: smooth scroll animation
function smoothScroll(targetY, duration = 1_000) {
  const startY = window.scrollY;
  const distance = targetY - startY;
  const startTime = performance.now();
  const animator = new Animator();

  animator.animate((delta, currentTime) => {
    const elapsed = currentTime - startTime;
    const progress = Math.min(elapsed / duration, 1);
    const eased = easeInOutCubic(progress);
    window.scrollTo(0, startY + distance * eased);
    if (progress >= 1) animator.stop();
  });
}

function easeInOutCubic(t) {
  return t < 0.5 ? 4 * t * t * t : 1 - ((-2 * t + 2) ** 3) / 2;
}

Rule 21: Keep Array Types Consistent

V8 uses specialized array representations. Mixing types downgrades arrays to slower generic mode.

// ✅ PACKED_SMI_ELEMENTS (Fastest)
const integers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; // All small integers (31-bit), no holes

// ✅ PACKED_DOUBLE_ELEMENTS (Fast)
const doubles = [1.5, 2.7, 3.14, 4.2]; // All doubles, no holes

// ⚠️ PACKED_ELEMENTS (Slower)
const mixed = [1, 'string', {}, null]; // Mixed types

// ❌ HOLEY_SMI_ELEMENTS (Slow)
const holey = [1, 2, , 4, 5]; // Has holes (empty slots)

// ❌ HOLEY_ELEMENTS (Slowest)
const worst = [1, , 'string', , {}]; // Mixed types AND holes

// ✅ Avoid holes
const array1 = new Array(100).fill(0); // PACKED_SMI
const array2 = [];
for (let i = 0; i < 100; i++) array2.push(i); // PACKED_SMI

// ❌ Delete creates holes
const arr = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
delete arr[2]; // Now HOLEY

// ✅ Splice to remove
const arr2 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
arr2.splice(2, 1); // Still PACKED

Rule 22: Use Typed Arrays for Numerics

Typed arrays provide native memory layout, enabling SIMD operations and cache-friendly access. 10-100x faster than regular arrays for numeric computation.

// ✅ Image processing
class ImageProcessor {
  #width;
  #height;
  #data;

  constructor(width, height) {
    this.#width = width;
    this.#height = height;
    this.#data = new Uint8ClampedArray(width * height * 4); // RGBA: 4 bytes per pixel
  }

  getPixel(x, y) {
    const index = (y * this.#width + x) * 4;
    return {
      r: this.#data[index],
      g: this.#data[index + 1],
      b: this.#data[index + 2],
      a: this.#data[index + 3]
    };
  }

  setPixel(x, y, r, g, b, a = 255) {
    const index = (y * this.#width + x) * 4;
    this.#data[index] = r;
    this.#data[index + 1] = g;
    this.#data[index + 2] = b;
    this.#data[index + 3] = a;
  }

  toGrayscale() {
    for (let i = 0; i < this.#data.length; i += 4) {
      const gray = this.#data[i] * 0.299 + this.#data[i + 1] * 0.587 + this.#data[i + 2] * 0.114;
      this.#data[i] = this.#data[i + 1] = this.#data[i + 2] = gray;
    }
  }
}

// Physics simulation
class ParticleSystem {
  #positions; // x, y, z
  #velocities;
  #count;

  constructor(count) {
    // Structure of Arrays (SoA) for cache efficiency
    this.#positions = new Float64Array(count * 3);
    this.#velocities = new Float64Array(count * 3);
    this.#count = count;
  }

  update(deltaTime) {
    for (let i = 0; i < this.#count; i++) {
      const idx = i * 3;
      this.#positions[idx] += this.#velocities[idx] * deltaTime;
      this.#positions[idx + 1] += this.#velocities[idx + 1] * deltaTime;
      this.#positions[idx + 2] += this.#velocities[idx + 2] * deltaTime;
      this.#velocities[idx + 1] -= 9.8 * deltaTime; // Gravity
    }
  }
}

Quick Reference

Async

// Timeout: await fetchWithTimeout(url, 5_000)
// Pool: const pool = new PromisePool(10); await pool.run(fn)
// Cleanup: disconnectedCallback() { clearInterval(this.intervalId); }

Objects

// Init all: constructor() { this.#prop1 = val1; this.#prop2 = val2; }
// Immutable: const next = { ...state, updated: true }
// Cancel: const controller = new AbortController(); () => controller.abort()

Performance

// Profile: const start = performance.now(); work(); console.log(performance.now() - start)
// Typed array: const buffer = new Float64Array(1_000)
// Monomorphic: Keep single type at each call site

Common Gotchas

// ❌ Don't
delete obj.prop; // Use obj.prop = undefined
function f() { arguments } // Use rest params
eval(code); // Use Function()
with (obj) {} // Use destructuring
const arr = [1, , 3]; // No holes
const mixed = [1, 'two']; // Keep types consistent

// ✅ Do
obj.prop = undefined;
const f = (...args) => {};
new Function(code)();
const { value } = obj;
const arr = [1, 0, 3];
const numbers = [1, 2, 3];

Priority Matrix

Always Apply:

• Handle rejections (Rule 1)
• Timeout async (Rule 2)
• Clean up resources (Rule 4)
• Init properties (Rule 4a)
• Global errors (Rule 8)

Hot Paths Only (>10k ops/sec):

• V8 optimization (Rules 19-22)
• Web Workers (Rule 18)
• Array optimization (Rule 21-22)

As Needed:

• Concurrency limits (Rule 3)
• Immutability (Rule 5)
• Cancellation (Rule 6)
• Error boundaries (Rule 7)

---

For V8 optimization deep dive (Rules 22a-27), see V8_OPTIMIZATION.md.